Deep Analysis of Miden: A High-Performance Zero-Knowledge Virtual Machine Architecture Based on STARK

1. Introduction

As blockchain applications continue to be widely used, privacy protection and scalability have become core challenges that demand practical solutions. Zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) technology has emerged as a promising way to address both. As Ethereum co-founder Vitalik Buterin put it, “Highly efficient zero-knowledge proofs (ZK-SNARKs) allow us to protect our identity privacy while revealing just enough information to prove our credibility.” In a recent blog post titled “Why I Support Privacy,” he further emphasized: “Supporting privacy for everyone, and making the necessary tools open-source, universal, reliable, and secure, is one of the most important challenges of our era.”

Privacy is not just a personal right; it’s also the foundation of decentralization and censorship resistance. At the same time, ZK-Rollup solutions are evolving rapidly as Layer 2 leaders. From the early days of zkSync and Optimism that focused on scalability to today’s zkEVM, these solutions have been working to balance performance and compatibility. Miden is a new solution rising in this landscape. It not only leverages STARK (Scalable Transparent ARguments of Knowledge—a zero-knowledge proof system that lets others verify results quickly and securely without revealing the computation itself, offering strong security, quantum resistance, and no reliance on a “trusted third party”), but also shifts execution and state to the user side, redefining the idea of a “composable privacy Rollup.”

2. Overview of Miden

Image source: https://x.com/0xMiden

Miden was incubated by Polygon Labs and spun out as an independent project called 0xMiden in spring 2025, positioning itself as an “Edge Blockchain.” Unlike traditional Rollups, where all trades are executed on-chain, Miden moves most computations and proof generation to client devices, submitting lightweight STARK proofs to the network for verification. Polygon’s official blog explains: “Miden will continue evolving into a zero-knowledge-powered ‘edge’ blockchain, shifting execution and state management to the client side. Unlike traditional chains such as Sui, Aptos, and Solana, Miden opens up new design possibilities for scalable, privacy-focused applications. By offloading execution and state to user devices, developers can build powerful systems combining public and private states, all while preserving user confidentiality and compliance.”

Image source: Polygon Official Blog

Key advantages of Miden include:

• High throughput and parallel execution: Inspired by the Actor model, each account (Actor) executes independently and generates its own proof, removing global lock contention and dramatically boosting parallelism and throughput.
• Privacy-first with optional transparency: By default, the ledger stores only state commitments. Developers can optionally disclose specific trades or contract calls when needed, supporting flexible privacy strategies.
• Client-side proof generation: With the efficiency and transparency of STARK, client devices can generate complex transaction proofs in 1–2 seconds. As of May 6, 2025 (UTC+8), typical proof generation on a mainstream MacBook Pro takes about 90K cycles.
• Ethereum-compatible security: Miden Rollup’s aggregation layer (AggLayer) is tightly integrated with Ethereum Mainnet, inheriting its strong security and decentralization.

According to the Polygon Miden website: “With Polygon Miden, developers can build innovative, high-throughput, privacy-enabled applications for payments, DeFi, digital assets, and gaming, with security backed by Ethereum and AggLayer.” So far, Miden has open-sourced its VM, launched a developer SDK, and entered Alpha Testnet v6, moving steadily toward its targeted Q4 2025 mainnet launch.

In short, by combining “client-side execution + ZK proof + edge architecture,” Miden introduces a new paradigm for scalable privacy and lays a technical foundation for next-generation Web3 infrastructure. In the following sections, we’ll take a closer look at its VM architecture and proof system.

3. In-depth Look at the Miden VM Architecture

Miden VM is a Turing-complete virtual machine purpose-built for efficient zero-knowledge proof generation. Its core mission is to execute smart contract logic locally on client devices and produce STARK proofs that can be quickly verified on-chain. The architecture and execution flow break down into four sections:

3.1 Stack-Based Virtual Machine and Instruction Set

• Stack Execution Model
  Miden VM uses a stack machine architecture where all instruction inputs and outputs are managed through the operation stack. This simplifies the state representation needed for proof generation because only stack reads and writes need to be tracked, removing the complexity of maintaining register states.

• RISC-like Minimal Instruction Set
  The VM adopts a simplified instruction set, which is similar to Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC), to minimize the number of constraints in the proof. Arithmetic operations, logic operations, stack manipulations, and control flow instructions are broken down into fundamental micro-operations. Each instruction maps arithmetic relations over a finite field. Miden VM efficiently translates instruction execution into algebraic constraints, allowing proof size to scale loosely with program complexity.

3.2 Program Memory Organization

During execution, Miden VM organizes program state across several logical memory segments:

Miden VM Memory Segment Responsibility Table (Table source: Gate Learn writer Max)

This segmented memory model not only simplifies representing different data access patterns but also enables independent constraint application for each segment during proof generation, improving lookup efficiency and parallelism.

3.3 Execution Flow and Proof Generation

Diagram: Miden VM Architecture (Source: Gate Learn writer Max)

1. Loading and Initialization
   The client loads contract bytecode into the Code Segment and sets up the execution environment. Input data from the blockchain or side channels is loaded into the Advice Tape, along with the initial state commitments of accounts or notes.

2. Trace Table Construction
   As the program runs, the VM records a “Trace Table,” a multi-column table where each column tracks the evolution of a memory segment or the top of the stack over time.

3. AIR Conversion
   The Trace Table is converted into an Algebraic Intermediate Representation (AIR), where all consistency rules (such as stack pointer changes and instruction semantics) are expressed as polynomial constraints.

4. STARK Proof Generation
   The Prover creates a STARK proof for the AIR. Thanks to STARK’s transparent setup and efficiency, the client processes thousands of instruction-level traces in O(N log N) time.

5. Verifier Validation
   The verifier only needs to sample low-dimensional polynomial evaluations, the complexity is about the polynomial level of the proof size, the verifications are usually completed within milliseconds. This enables high throughput on-chain.

The whole process—from execution to proof generation—takes about 1–2 seconds on a typical Miden client (~90K VM cycles), with even faster verification on-chain, making large-scale parallel trading validation possible.

3.4 Parallelism and Composability

• Actor Model
  Miden VM treats each account (or note) as an independent Actor, with its own execution and state. Multiple transaction scripts can execute and generate proofs in parallel on the client side, before being batched and submitted to the network for verification. This Actor model, combined with zero-knowledge proofs, allows users to prove state transitions locally while the network verifies them in parallel, which dramatically improves throughput.

• Composable Scripts
  With Foreign Procedure Invocation (FPI), a contract script can call another contract’s read-only function without interrupting the local proof process. FPI brings cross-contract reads into the same Trace Table, supporting efficient composability.

3.5 A Simple Analogy: What Is Miden VM Like?

Think of Miden VM as a “privacy-preserving micro-factory” running locally on your phone. It performs tasks and produces an officially certified “work record” to submit to the mainnet for verification.

Example:

Imagine playing an on-chain RPG game, where you buy land on-chain and spend in-game gold to build a castle.

• In a traditional smart contract: All your actions (location, spending, building) are executed on-chain, fully public, and consume block space while also leaking privacy.

• With Miden VM:

  • All logic—“Do I have enough coins? Am I in the right place? Does it comply with the building rules?”—executes locally on your phone.
  • Miden VM produces a mathematical proof on your device, telling your network: “This user followed the rules.”
  • The chain doesn’t need to know how you built it, it only needs to verify that the proof is valid and the state can be updated accordingly.

The benefits of this design are:

1. The network doesn’t process each trade, and it only verifies proofs, saving resources.
2. User actions stay private unless you choose to disclose them.
3. Multiple players can execute and prove their actions at the same time without competing for on-chain resources.

In short, Miden VM’s key architecture lies in combining provable instructions, segmented memory, an efficient AIR → STARK pipeline, and the Actor parallel model, which enables complex logic to run on client devices while keeping on-chain verification fast and lightweight. This provides a strong technical foundation for the next generation of privacy-preserving, high-performance ZK-Rollup applications.

4. Miden’s Proof System: A STARK-Powered Verifiable Execution Engine

Diagram: Miden Proof System (Source: Gate Learn writer Max)

In Miden, zero-knowledge proofs aren’t an optional feature—they form the core of the system’s operation. Built entirely around STARKs (Scalable Transparent ARguments of Knowledge), Miden’s architecture is designed from the ground up for local execution and zero-knowledge proofs. This section walks through Miden’s proof pipeline and the reasoning behind its use of STARK.

4.1 Why STARK Instead of SNARK?

Compared to SNARKs, which are widely used in zkEVM projects, Miden chooses STARK for three main reasons:

1. No Trusted Setup (Transparent)
   STARK relies on cryptographic hash functions (e.g., Rescue, Blake3) instead of elliptic curve cryptography, eliminating risks tied to multi-party trusted setups.

2. Resistant to Quantum Attacks
   Because STARK is built on hash-based security, it is better equipped to withstand potential future quantum computing threats.

3. Fast Proof Generation and Verification
   Although STARK proofs are larger than SNARK proof, they are faster to verify, making them more suitable for high-throughput, parallel on-chain validation.

Polygon Labs’ research team explains:
“Miden didn’t choose STARK to fit with existing paradigms; it chose STARK to maximize scalability and security with a fundamentally new approach.”

4.2 Trace Table and Execution Traces

In traditional computing, developers track every program step such as variable changes, function calls, etc. In Miden VM, these steps form the execution trace, recorded in a Trace Table that shows the state snapshot at each point in time.

Each column tracks the evolution of a register, memory cell, or stack top.
Each row represents a single moment (or cycle) in execution.

Example:

Every Miden instruction is precisely recorded and later converted into algebraic constraints in the proof process.

4.3 AIR (Algebraic Intermediate Representation)

Once the Trace Table is built, it is converted into AIR, which expresses the program’s rules as polynomial constraints. Key points include:

• Each rule, such as “the top of the stack after addition is equal to the sum of the two numbers”, can be expressed as: “stack[0]_next = stack[0]_curr + stack[1]_curr”
• All rules are verified over a finite field, making them well-suited for efficient proof generation in STARK.
• Low Degree Extension (LDE) techniques expand discrete trace data into continuous mathematical functions. These allow probabilistic checks to detect incorrect traces.

With AIR, Miden expresses the statement “this execution is valid” as a clear mathematical claim that can be verified.

4.4 STARK Proof Process

The full STARK proof generation process includes:

1. Prover builds the execution trace: recording the program’s step-by-step behavior on the client device.
2. Converts it into an AIR system: mapping each instruction to algebraic constraints.
3. Extends and commits to the trace data: using Merkle Trees to commit to the Low Degree Extended data.
4. Applies the FRI protocol: to verify that the data represents low-degree polynomials, confirming trace validity.
5. Generates the proof: producing a proof roughly 30–100KB in size, ready for submission to the network.

This entire process runs on the client and typically completes it in 1–2 seconds, even on mobile devices. (If needed, users can outsource this to an external proving service.)

4.5 On-Chain Verification and State Updates

The Miden Verifier contract (deployed on Ethereum) performs the following:

• Verifies that the AIR constraints hold (by sampling a subset of the trace).
• Checks that public inputs (such as state commitments and block height) match.
• Updates global state, such as account storage trees and nullifiers.
• Registers or updates the new state for notes.

Thanks to the transparency and efficiency of STARK, the Verifier can validate thousands of trading proofs in parallel, greatly boosting throughput and minimizing on-chain load.

4.6 Simple Analogy: Miden’s STARK Proof Is Like a “Mathematical Receipt”

Think of Miden’s ZK proof like a paperless bank transaction:

Example scenario:

Suppose you go to the bank to transfer money but don’t want to reveal your balance, who you sent the money to, or how much you sent. Yet, you want the bank to confirm the trading was valid.

So you:

1. Do all calculations and bookkeeping at home.
2. Generate a “mathematical receipt” (a STARK proof) saying, “I did this correctly, didn’t overspend, and followed the rules.”
3. Send the receipt to the bank, rather than your full account statement.
4. The bank checks the receipt mathematically and processes the transfer.
5. The bank learns nothing about your personal data and can only confirm that the trading is valid.

In Miden’s terms:

• “You” = the client device
• “Calculator” = Miden VM
• “Mathematical receipt” = STARK proof
• “Bank” = the Miden Verifier on Ethereum
• “Whether there is money” and “whether there is a violation” are all calculated locally and mathematical proofs are used to convince the network.
• The entire process does not need to reveal specific details, nor does it require others to re-run your program.

This is the essence of zero-knowledge: proof without disclosure.

Summary

Miden doesn’t treat zero-knowledge proofs as a bolt-on feature. Instead, they are deeply integrated into the VM’s execution pipeline. Through the Trace → AIR → STARK proof workflow, Miden achieves a truly local execution model, verified on-chain, with no leakage of private data. It pioneers a new class of STARK-based, application-layer virtual machines.

5. Miden Developer Experience and Tooling Overview

Miden Developer Experience and Tools Summary Table (Source: Gate Learn writer Max)

Miden’s development environment is designed specifically for ZK applications, combining modularity, type safety, and local execution. This enables developers to build systems flexibly while ensuring secure on-chain deployment.

6. Typical Applications and Use Cases: What Miden Enables Beyond Other Chains

6.1 “Order Matching No Longer On-chain” — The Next Phase of DeFi

In traditional order book-based DEXs, every buy and sell match must be recorded on-chain, making the process costly, slow, and vulnerable to front running (MEV) attacks.

Miden’s approach:

• Order matching takes place on the client side (mobile/server).
• Users batch multiple trades and generate a ZK proof.
• The network verifies that “these trades are valid,” without processing each trade individually.
• Trade details remain confidential with only state updates being recorded.

The outcome: faster trades, lower costs and no MEV risks, enabling high-frequency trading and on-chain market making.

6.2 Wallets as Smart “Identity Terminals,” Not Just Addresses

Comparison of EVM Wallet vs. Miden Wallet (Source: Gate Learn writer Max)

In Miden, every account is a smart contract. A wallet becomes an identity terminal where users define their own rules. The user experience feels like a banking app but retains the security of on-chain self-custody.

6.3 Should Game Item Attributes Be Public?

Example scenario:
In a blockchain MMORPG, you find a rare sword with hidden attributes. As long as it’s on-chain, others will immediately know it has buffs, is valuable, and may snatch it from you.

How does Miden solve this:

• Game logic and item attributes run locally.
• Buffs, cooldowns, and skills are stored in private local states.
• A ZK proof tells the mainnet “this sword defeated a monster,” without revealing the sword’s attributes.
• Other players can only see the outcome, not the specific items used.

This brings fair and private gameplay to Web3 games, supporting anti-cheat mechanisms and preventing spoilers.

6.4 Private Payments ≠ Non-compliance

On Ethereum: Paying 1 ETH to someone = publicly revealing who you paid, when, and how much.

On Miden:

• You can make tradings visible only to “trusted verifiers”.
• Regulators can confirm that a trade happened and meets compliance requirements, without seeing the full trading history;
• Supporting a payment system that balances privacy, auditability, and user control.

Typical applications include DAO treasury operations, global enterprise payments, on-chain payroll, and Web3 banking.

6.5 A New Approach: Off-chain AI + On-chain Proof

Miden allows AI models to run locally (for example, for market prediction or healthcare advice), with the results submitted to blockchain via STARK proof.

Example process:

• The model runs on the client device.
• The user generates a ZK proof stating: “this result came from running the model on a given dataset”.
• The mainnet verifies the execution’s validity without knowing the process or data.

This lets applications safeguard model IP and user privacy while creating trustworthy blockchain interactions. Use cases include medical AI, risk models, and business logic — all verified securely without exposing sensitive data.

6.6 Summary

Miden is more than a privacy add-on or performance layer. It represents a shift from “on-chain ledger” to an “on-chain trusted computing system.” Miden allows developers to build secure, composable, and auditable Web3 applications without exposing private data.

7. Challenges and Outlook

While Miden demonstrates the strong potential of zero-knowledge technology in scalability, privacy, and new development paradigms, as a new architecture, it still faces several challenges:

1. The developer ecosystem is still in the early stages. Compared to the mature EVM environment, Miden’s toolchain, language support, and component libraries are still being developed. Rust support is underway, but most smart contracts currently require MASM, creating a learning curve for developers unfamiliar with low-level code.
2. STARK proofs, though transparent and efficient, are relatively large. This places higher performance and bandwidth demands on mobile devices and users in low-connectivity environments. Future improvements, such as proof aggregation and dedicated proving services, may ease this, but for now, it remains a usability challenge.
3. The balance between privacy and compliance remains a complex issue. Miden offers flexible “verifiable but opaque” systems, but different regulatory environments may limit some use cases. Developers must build solutions that protect privacy while meeting auditability, controllability, and security requirements to comply with regulations.

Looking forward, Miden’s has a clear roadmap forward. With the maturing Rust tool chain, expanding developer templates and components, and integration with the Polygon AggLayer mainnet, it has the potential to become the default runtime for Web3 — particularly for applications requiring complex logic, privacy controls, and minimal on-chain data. The “client-side execution + on-chain verification” model Miden promotes could unlock true scalability for blockchain computing.

Miden Development Roadmap (Source: Miden Official Document)

8. Conclusion

Miden is not a minor adjustment to traditional blockchain architecture; it is a complete redesign. By making zero-knowledge proofs central to its architecture, it shifts trading execution and state management to the client, leaving the network to focus solely on verification and consensus. This way, performance, privacy, and security no longer need to be trade-offs; they can coexist.

With Miden, developers can build more complex, private, and flexible applications, while users gain greater control and stronger security. Miden not only pushes the boundaries of blockchain technology but also opens up new possibilities for Web3 applications. As the ecosystem matures, Miden could become a foundational part of the next-generation Web3 infrastructure. The future of blockchain may well lie in this model of “on-chain trusted verification + off-chain free execution.”